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Lecture nine. Etymological background of the English language vocabulary. one. Etymology as a co-operative of linguistics. 2. Native English vocabulary. 3. The part of borrowings in the formation of the English vocabulary. iv. Assimilation of borrowings. 5. Hybrid words half dozen. Etymological doublets. 7. False etymology. 8. International words.

1. Etymology is a branch of lexicology, the subject field-affair of which is the origin and development of lexical items, i. due east. historical changes in the sphere of lexis. Etymology is mainly based on a diachronic approach. The history of the English vocabulary, is a history of far-reaching changes. Information technology is marked by losses and gains in the word-stock of the English linguistic communication, its considerable expansion due to internal and external causes.

According to their etymology the majority of English language words are taken, or borrowed, from other languages (Latin, French, Scandinavian, etc. ), nearly 70% of modern English lexicon are non English by their origin. From etymological point of view the English language give-and-take-stock is mixed. It consists of native and borrowed , or loan words.

In linguistic literature the term native is used to denote words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to the British Isles from the continent in the 5 th century by the Germanic tribes – the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, and also words coined later on their basis. The term borrowing is used to denote the process of adopting words from other 'donor' languages and also the event of this process, the language fabric itself (lexemes, morphemes, some word-groups) which are also called loans.

. 2. Native words consist of very ancient elements and belong to very of import semantic groups. Though the total number of native English language words is less than that of the borrowed ones (25 -xxx%), they are very of import because of their great word-edifice ability, collocability and frequency value. To native words belong most of prepositions, conjunctions, numera. Is, a lot of notional words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. Co-ordinate to their origin, native words are subdivided into 3 groups: ane. Words of the Indo-European give-and-take-stock , having cognates (words of the same etymological root, of common origin) in other Indo-European languages (Romance, Slavonic, Greek, Baltic, Iranian, Armenian, Sanskrit).

English words of this group denote due east. Iementary notions without which no man advice would be possible. They include the following groups: a) Kinship terms: father (cogn. west. L pater), mother, brother, wife, son, daughter. b) Parts of the human body: nose, heart (cogn. w. Fifty cor), lip, pes (cogn. w. Rus пядь) , ear. с ) Heavenly bodies: sunday, moon. star (cogn. west. Gk aster). d) Times of twenty-four hour period: day, night. due east) Objects and phenomena of nature: wind, water, hill. f) Animals: cow, swine, goose, wolf, mouse. g) Plants: tree, birch, corn. h) Numerous adjectives: new, young; glad, distressing (cogn. w. 50 satis. R сыт) i) Numerous verbs: be, do, sit, stand, eat, know j) Numerals from one to hundred.

2. Words of common Germanic origin having parallels in Germanic languages: High german, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic, etc. Some of the main groups of Germanic words are the same as in Indo-European chemical element: a) Parts of the homo trunk: eye, caput, paw, arm, finger, bone. b) Natural objects and phenomena: rain, frost, sea, land, ground. c) Seasons of the year: winter, spring, summertime, except autumn which is a French borrowing. d) Animals: equus caballus. sheep, dogie, acquit, hare, play a trick on, hen. east) Plants: oak, fir, grass. f) Names of materials: stone, coal, wood, drinking glass, iron, atomic number 82.

g) Objects connected with human being activities and everyday life: house, room, send, boat, bridge, shop, cloth, hat, shirt, shoe, demote. h) Certain abstruse names: life, promise, care, evil, need. i) Adjectives: light-green, blue, grayness, white, night, bright, warm, hot, adept. j) Auxiliary and modal verbs: shall, will, must, can, may. k) Notional verbs: see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer. l) Pronouns: I, y'all, he, we, this, that, my, his, except they which is a Scandinavian borrowing. yard) Prepositions: in, out, on, under, to. due north) Conjunctions: and, but, equally. Together with the words of the mutual Indo-European stock these Common Germanic words form the bulk of the nigh frequent elements used in any style of spoken communication.

3. English proper words are specifically English as they have no cognates in other languages. The origin of some of them, such as, male child, girl, bird is unknown, others like lord, lady, woman, daisy, always came into existence due to compounding: e. thousand. lord < OE hlaford f. hlafweard = breadkeeper (loaf, ward).

3. Borrowing words from other languages is characteristic of English throughout its history. More than 2 thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings. Mostly they are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French, Italian, Spanish). English history is very rich in dissimilar types of contacts with other countries, that is why it is very rich in borrowings. The Roman invasion, the adoption of Christianity, Scandinavian and Norman conquests of the British Isles, the evolution of British colonialism and trade and cultural relations served to increment immensely the English vocabulary. The majority of these borrowings are fully assimilated in English language in their pronunciation, grammar, spelling and can be hardly distinguished from native words.

The term source of borrowing should exist practical to the linguistic communication from which the loan discussion was taken into English. Origin of borrowing refers to the language to which the give-and-take may be traced. Thus paper < Fr. papier < Lat. papyrus < Gr. papyros has French every bit its source and Greek as its origin. Alongside loan words proper we distinguish translation loans and semantic borrowings. Translation loans are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the language, but according to the patterns taken from another linguistic communication, by way of literal morpheme-for-morpheme translation. east. g. swan song from Germ. swanen gesung masterpiece – meisterstuck a collective farm – колхоз

The term semantic loan is used to denote the development in an English word of a new meaning due to the influence of a related word in another language. The English word "pioneer" meant "explorer" and ane who is the offset. Under the influence of the Russian give-and-take "пионер" it has come to hateful "a member of the Young Pioneer Organization". " Dwell" – "to wander nigh" (under the influence of Scandinavian — "to alive").

Latin borrowings The role of words borrowed from Latin cannot exist overestimated. It was counted that approximately a quarter of the Latin vocabulary has been taken over by English. But among Latin borrowings nosotros must distinguish those borrowed: 1) 1. Through immediate contact, that is orally at the early stages of language development. ii. After borrowings which came through writing. The commencement are generally monosyllabic and announce things of everyday importance while the latter are generally long bookish words. The outset are thoroughly alloyed. e. g. pear, pea, pepper, cheese, plum, butter, wine, kettle, loving cup, dish, line.

A number of words adopted at that menses pertain to trade: cheap, pound, inch. Some words had a war machine season, for the Romans built fortifications, military camps and roads: port, street, wall, factory. ii) The 2nd great stratum of Latin words came into English at the end of the 6 -th century when the people of England were converted to Christianity. Since Latin was the linguistic communication of church building many Latin words (mainly of Greek origin) denoting religious concepts came into English: chantry, angel, anthem, bishop, candle, disciple, devil, martyr, priest, temple Many Latin words borrowed at that period referred to other spheres of life: cap, chest, purple, silk, belt, lily, plant, school, verse, fever, circle, panthera leo, tiger.

3) Another big grouping of Latin words came through French later on the Norman Conquest (1066). They are referred to as the third stratum of Latin borrowings. 4) But the greatest stream of Latin words poured into English during and subsequently the Revival of Learning (the Renaissance). For instance: terms of philosophy, mathematics, physics: diameter, fundamental, momentum, radius, vacuum; words pertaining to law and government: alibi, coroner, veto, judicial; medicine: anesthetics, diagnosis; geography: equator, continental, peninsula. Some of these words can be traced to Greek roots. Here are some abbreviations met in writing: e. g. – for example, i. e. – that is, a. m. – before noon, etc. – and then on

Greek Borrowings

The Scandinavian Elements The Scandinavian Invasion of England which proved to be of linguistic importance began in the 8 -th century. In 878 the Wedmore Peace Treaty was signed and according to it the Danes (the Scandinavians) occupied the "Danelaw" regions on the Northern Declension of England. In 1017 the Danes conquered the whole of England reigned over it upwards to 1042. The Danish settlers intermingled with the native population. The fact of both languages beingness Germanic facilitated common understanding and discussion borrowings; therefore it's sometimes difficult to say whether a word is of native or Scandinavian origin.

Words are sometimes called Scandinavian if they were not met in Anglo-Saxon written documents up to the 11 -th century. due east. thousand. anger, beau, gate, husband, sky, want, window, to hit etc. Among numerous Scandinavian borrowings nosotros find the pronouns: aforementioned, both, they and adverbs: hence, whence, thence, which ousted the OE theoran, anon, hwanon. In distinguishing Scandinavian words we may sometimes apply the criterion of audio, such as [sk] in words of Scandinavian origin: scull, scare, scream, scrape, busk where the purely English language words would accept [S], since the OE sc turned into sh. Then once again the hard [g] and [g] sounds before i, due east speak for the words of Scandinavian origin: kid.

The Norman – French Elements The French layer rates second to Latin in bulk. It has been estimated that English owes i fourth of its vocabulary to French borrowings penetrated into English in two ways: ane. From the Norman dialect (during the 1 -st century later on the Norman Conquest of 1066). 2. From the French national literary language outset with the 15 -th century. The Normans who conquered England in 1066 (the battle at Hastings) were of Scandinavian origin (they had left their native country and seized a territory on the Northern declension of France and afterwards adopted French language and culture). Their language differed somewhat from the cardinal French dialect.

During two centuries afterwards the Norman Conquest the linguistic situation in England was rather complicated: the feudal lords spoke the Norman dialect (Norman French), the ordinary people spoke English language, scientific and religious literature was in Latin, the court documents, fiction were written in French. Latin and French were used in administration and school teaching. The Anglo-Norman dialect which was a good conductor of French words which penetrated into English in cracking numbers. Gradually English language assimilated many French words that either ousted their Saxon equivalents or became synonymous to native words. eastward. one thousand. happiness – felicity, assist – aid, weak – feeble Before the Norman Conquest just a few words were borrowed (proud, plow, simulated, chancellor, market).

French borrowings of the 12 -xvi -th centuries show both the social status of the Norman invaders and their supremacy in economic, cultural and political development. They are: terms of police force: charge, acquit, judge, amend, jury, prison military machine terms: regular army, peace, armour, assault, battle, powder, siege, officer, sergeant, soldier etc. religious terms: saint, miracle, charity, mercy, clergy, pray, religion merchandise and everyday affairs: barber, butcher, grocer, sleeping accommodation, tailor, beef, veal, mutton, pleasure, leisure, comfort, delight terms of rank: duke, duchess, prince, peer

terms of art: dazzler, colour, paradigm, design, effigy, costume, garment terms of compages: curvation, belfry, pillar, column, palace, castle, mansion In most cases such words were completely alloyed: e. g. the [Z] turned into [G] in words age, union [J] [R] design, crime long [R] gave audio [ei]: grace, blame ch [C]: chance, change, charity The stress was shifted to the starting time syllable. These borrowings are now in mutual use. Later French borrowings may be easily identified by their peculiarities of class and pronunciation. e. g. automobile, antechamber, garage, machine, technique

Borrowings from other languages 1. Celtic borrowings along with the Latin ones belong to the about aboriginal ones. The Celts were the people whom the Angles, Saxons and Jutes confronted when they migrated to the British lsles in the 5 th c. AD From the Celts the conquerors got to know a number of words: downwards, bard, glen, baldheaded, druid, cradle. The English language linguistic communication retained a lot of Celtic names of certain regions (Kent). rivers (Avon, Exe, Thames), towns, eastward. g. l, ondon (Llyn 'river' + dun 'a fortified hill'), hills, forests and other natural features.

2. Dutch. In the 14 -17 -thursday centuries due to intense overseas merchandise with the Low Countries (the netherlands, Flanders) which involved shipping, nautical terms were borrowed: bowsprit, dock, deck, yacht, cruise, freight, scoop, etc. words related to trade (textile-manufacturing and brewing): bale, brick, clock, pack, spool, brandy, booze, etc. Painters' terms such as: sketch, easel, landscape and others were adopted during the flourishing period of the Dutch school of painting in the 17 th c.

iii. Italian. The lexical items borrowed into English include loans in the fields of art, music, literature, architecture, armed forces terms, words to practice with Italian life and community, food, finance, commerce, etc: balcony, loggia, opera, sonata, aria, solo, concert, sonnet, soprano, pianoforte; colonel, squadron; firm (commerc. ), bank (financ. , via French); carnival, gondola, macaroni, pizza, umbrella, influenza, malaria, propaganda, brigand etc.

4. Spanish. Straight loans from Spanish and, to some extent, from Portuguese, which take entered English since the 16 th c. , include such every bit the following: embargo, cargo, fleet, flotilla, breeze, renegade, guerrilla, negro, mulatto, caste, sherry, cigar, cockroach (Sp, cucaracha), etc. Via the linguistic communication of the conquistadors, the Spanish conquerors in the Americas, came quite a few of the loans from the Western Hemisphere: tomato, chocolate (via French), cocoa, potato, barbecue, canoe, maize, hurricane, carnivorous, tobacco, etc. 5. German language: zinc, cobalt, quartz, nickel, alkane, vitamin, kohlrabi, sauerkraut, schnitzel, schnapps, plunder, iceberg, waltz, kindergarten, leitmotif, Zeitgeist, rucksack, blitz, blitzkrieg, ablaut, etc.

6. Russian borrowings are subdivided into: a) pre-Revolutionary: samovar, tsar, steppe, vodka, kvass, knout, borsch, troika, steppe, verst, sable, sevruga, babushka, intelligentsia; b) post-Revolutionary: Soviet, bolshevik, kolkhoz, sputnik, perestroika, glasnost, pryzhok, etc. The age of colonialist expansion brought English into directly contact with languages from all parts of the earth and resulted in numerous additions to its vocabulary, e. g. from the languages spoken on the Indian sub-continent: jungle, pyjamas, khaki, yoga, bungalow, verandah. guru, shampoo, etc. From the Malay-Polynesian and the languages of the Australian aborigines came borrowings like gong, taboo, boomerang.

Arabic: coffee (via Turkish), sofa, sash, hashish, sheikh, emir, harem, sherbet, zilch; Chinese: tea, silk, tycoon, kung-fu; words adopted from Japanese: kimono, bonsai, geisha, haiku, karate, kamikaze, hara-kiri; Turkish: pasha, sultan, bazaar, caftan, kiosk (via French). A number of loans came from the languages spoken by Due north American Indians: opossum, skunk, moccasin, tomahawk, totem, chipmunk wigwam etc.

4. The term "assimilation of a loan discussion" is used to denote a partial or full conformation to the phonetic, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system. The caste of assimilation depends upon: 1) the length of menstruation during which the word has been used in the receiving language; two) its importance for advice purpose; 3) its frequency. Oral borrowings are assimilated more completely and rapidly than literary borrowings (i. e. borrowings through written speech). Apropos the caste of assimilation of loan words we may distinguish 3 groups: completely assimilated loan words; partially assimilated loan words; not-assimilated loan words or barbarisms.

Completely assimilated words are found in all the layers of older borrowings. Latin borrowings: cheese, street, wall, wine. Scandinavian loan words: husband, beau, gate, root, call, dice, take, want, happy, ill, add, wrong. French: table, chair, fall, figure, finish, matter. Completely assimilated words follow all morphological, phonetic and orthographic standards of English. They are many times greater than partially assimilated. Being very frequent and stylistically neutral, they occur as dominant words in synonymic groups. They accept an agile role in give-and-take-germination.

Partly alloyed words can be subdivided into several groups: ane. Loan words not assimilated semantically considering they announce objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come: sari, sombrero, shah, rickshaw; 2. Words not assimilated grammatically (nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek, which keep their original plural forms: bacillus – bacilli, crunch – crises, phenomenon – phenomena; 3. Loan words not completely assimilated phonetically: motorcar, drawing, police, authorities, bourgeois; 4. Loan words not completely assimilated graphically: ballet, buffet, café.

Non-assimilated borrowings or barbarisms are words borrowed without whatever modify in class: addio (Italian), tete-a-tete (French), dolce vita (Italian), A loan give-and-take never brings into the receiving language the whole of its semantic structure if it is polysemantic in the original language. The discussion sport can serve as an illustration. In Old French it had a much wider telescopic, denoting pleasance, making merry and amusement in general. It was borrowed into Mid. E in this character just gradually caused the boosted meanings of outdoor games and exercises, and in this new pregnant was borrowed into many European languages and became international. A borrowed word from Russian "Sputnic" – in Russian it has other meanings as well (спутник жизни).

five. Hybrid words Most strange prefixes and suffixes have now become neutralized in English, and many derivative words are of mixed origin. Such words are called hybrids. Native root + Latin or French prefix em-torso, en-dear, dis-brunt, per-haps, re-call Native root + Latin or French suffix drink-able, starv-ation, give-and-take-age Latin root + English prefix a-cantankerous, united nations-deceive, under-guess Latin root + English suffix use-ful, quarrel-some, rapid-ly

6. Sometimes a give-and-take is borrowed twice into English. Words are derived from the same root but have a dissimilar meaning and form, considering they developed in different ways (e. g. OE to to, as well; OE ofof, off). The words shirt, shriek, share, shabby come from OE whereas their corresponding doublets skirt, screech, scar, scabby are etymological cognates, Scandinavian borrowings (regular variation of sh- and sc-). Such words are chosen etymological doublets.

These are words of the same etymological root simply which came into the linguistic communication past unlike ways: They announced due to the influence of unlike dialects. Two words at nowadays slightly differentiated in significant may have originally been dialectical variants of the same word. Thus we find in doublets the traces of former English language dialects (e. g. whole (in the quondam sense of salubrious or free from disease) and hale, raid and road). Ane of the doublets is native, the other is borrowed: screw (Scandinavian) – shrew (English) Both doublets may exist borrowed from dissimilar languages, merely these languages must exist co-generic, for example: captain (Latin) – chieftain (French); senior (Latin) – sir (French); canal (Latin) – channel (French).

Etymological doublets may be borrowed from the same language just in different historical periods, one word earlier, the second later: travel (Norman borrowing) – travail (Parisian borrowing); corpse (Norman borrowing) – corps (Parisian borrowing). Both doublets are native, but i originates from the other: history – story, phantasy – fancy, defence – fence, shadow – shade. Etymological doublets are typical of English language.

7. Fake etymology Sometimes people connect meanings of words past mistake, they alter the pregnant of a word as a result of associating borrowed words with familiar native words which somewhat resemble them in audio but which are non related. The discussion standard got its modern meaning also due to false etymology (formerly it meant a flag, banner ). Then information technology was connected with the word to stand, and the meaning of the word was changed. Now it ways norm, model.

eight. Words which have been simultaneously and successively borrowed into different languages are called international words. They reverberate the history of world civilisation and convey notions which are significant in communication. New inventions, political institutions, foodstuffs, leisure activities, scientific discipline, technological advances have all generated new lexemes and continue to exercise so: sputnik, television, cistron, java, grapefruit, etc. Words making upward the fund of international terminology are mostly Latin or Greek past origin.

Fund of International Words Greek: democracy, poem, mathematics, analysis, strategy, stadium, drama, theatre and others Latin: • Medical terms: angina, tuberculosis; • Juridical words: abet, entreatment, justice; • Economical and political vocabulary: constitution, commonwealth; • School terminology: dean, student, rector, subject.

International words should not be confused with pseudo-international words (false cognates, "translator'south false friends") which accept the aforementioned origin but different semantic features. The divergence in meaning can be fractional: The English language adjective liberal corresponds not just to Ukrainian ліберальний, but as well to щедрий, багатий, гуманітариний. Complete divergence in meaning: The English language discussion aspirant does not mean аспірант but претендент, кандидат.

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